ADORNMENT OF A HELLENISTIC MAENAD:
A GOLD HAIRNET IN CONTEXT
ASHLEY LAVANCHY

An ornate goldwork hairnet from the Hellenistic period that is currently in the
Metropolitan Museum of Art has not been the primary subject of any published
research prior. This paper intends to analyze the stylistic elements of the hairnet,
and how these attributes reflect the many cultural changes occurring in the time
that the jewellery piece was produced. The hairnet’s possible artistic links to the
influence of the Ptolemaic dynasty as well as the growing public fascination with
the mystery cult of Dionysus are explored. Developments in the domestic and public
roles of women, including those within the religious sphere are of particular
interest.

The conquests of Alexander the Great expanded the Greek world by claiming new
land from his victory over the Persian empire and establishing settlements
throughout the Mediterranean and in territories beyond such as the Middle East and
Central Asia. The period of cultural interaction which commenced from these
conquests made the Hellenistic world far more interconnected and cosmopolitan
than the world that had existed prior. People travelled within this expansive new
empire spreading the customs and religion of their own culture, and the exchange
of artistic conventions was facilitated by the establishment of new trade routes.
Greek art and architecture adopted elements from foreign cultures which often
resulted in the eventual syncretisation of traditions. These cultures also became
Hellenized through prolonged exposure, as regions that had come under the direct
influence of Greece began to synthesize aspects of Greek culture with local
traditions. The process of Hellenization is especially prominent in Egypt following
the foundation of the Ptolemaic dynasty, where the new Greek settlers of the area
replaced the previous native Egyptian aristocracy despite representing a minority
in the population. It was under these circumstances that an impressive piece of
material culture was produced.

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Figure 1: Gold openwork hairnet with medallion. ca. 200 – 150 BCE
Currently in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Accession 1987.220. 1
The piece known as “gold openwork hairnet with medallion” is currently kept at
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, and its elaborate metalwork is suggestive of a
variety of different cultural shifts that contributed to changes in the traditional roles
and statuses of women during the Hellenistic period (see Figure 1). 2 The hairnet is
dated to the Ptolemaic period, ca. 200-150 BCE, although this is an approximate
time, likely based entirely on the comparison of artistic trends that are not always
consistent across geographical locations or restricted to any specific period. This
approach however is necessary, given that the hairnet was donated to the museum
by Norman Schimmel, a prominent collector of Mediterranean antiquities. 3 For this
“Gold openwork hairnet with medallion,” The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Ibid.
3
Ibid.
1
2

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reason, where the object was discovered and at what point in time is not indicated
by the museum and is likely not known. Unfortunate predicaments such as these
are common with antiquities, especially with those that hold substantial economic
value. Though critical archaeological information on this object has been
regrettably lost, the decorative aspects and iconography of this piece can still be
analyzed to provide thematic insight on the social developments of the Hellenistic
world, especially those that concern women.
The most pronounced aspect of the hairnet is the medallion that presents a portrait
in high relief framed by intricate filigree. High relief is identifiable due to the
sculptural form protruding forth from the medallion’s base to a significant degree,
as opposed to being rendered by means of shallow indentations, which is
categorized as low relief (see Figure 2 for side profile of portrait). Medallions of
this type are an innovation of the Hellenistic period with known examples having
been dated to the second century BCE onwards. 4 The portrait is thought to represent
a maenad, one of the “raving” female followers of the god Dionysus, because of
the surrounding use of Dionysian motifs. The figure’s face is youthful and round,
while the projection of the cheek bones emphasizes a sense of depth that is
characteristic of Hellenistic portraiture. The serene facial expression echoes
Classical art traditions while the large and wide-set eyes along with the small mouth
and prominent chin reflect artistic conventions of the Greek world.
The portrait itself is achieved by repoussé, which generally entails hammering a
relief into the reverse side of a metal sheet. 5 To keep the thickness of the metal
uniform in high relief work, it became necessary to work both sides of the metal. 6
Similar to other examples of Hellenistic goldwork medallions, this example appears
to consist of two individual pieces of metal, given that the relief needed to first be
“worked on a separate disc of sheet gold” that was then applied “to the centre of
the medallion” and subsequently bound together. 7 The hairnet’s finish appears
nearly “satin-like” which is a feature of much Hellenistic jewellery. This finish is
due to the goldsmith’s repeated processes of burnishing and heating which
effectively assists in preserving the original appearance of the goldwork, and
thereby minimizes the need for significant conservational efforts to be taken with
these pieces. 8

R.A. Higgins, Greek and Roman Jewellery (London: Methuen and Co Ltd, 1961), 156.
Herbert Hoffman, and Patricia F. Davidson. Greek Gold Jewelry from the Age of Alexander
(Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, 1965), 234.
6
Higgins, 10.
7
Hoffan and Davidon, 223.
8
Ibid, 48.
4
5

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Figure 2: Gold openwork hairnet with medallion. ca. 200 – 150 BCE
Currently in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Accession 1987.220. 9
Since the face of the subject is fairly androgynous, and considering Dionysus is
frequently depicted with more delicate or “feminine” features, it is difficult to
conclude with any certainty whether the medallion depicts a worshipper or the god
himself. Distinguishing mortal from divine in art often poses difficulties, because
devotees are commonly depicted with the same motifs as those that are employed
to signify the god they serve. 10 In Hellenistic art, attempts to make these
differentiations definitive are further complicated due to the emergence of ruler
cults that utilized sacred imagery to equate kingship with divinity. 11 This
correlation of the ruling class to divine authority was already an established custom
in areas such as Persia and Egypt, and was a practice adopted by Alexander the
Great during his lifetime. In the case of this object, the medallion’s figure has
presumably been identified as a maenad, rather than Dionysus, simply because the
hairnet itself is something that would have been worn by a woman. However, this
alone does not decisively exclude the possibility of the portrait being of the god,
given that the gender of the owner is unlikely to always be synonymous with the
gender of the artistic subject matter of an object.

“Gold openwork hairnet with medallion,” The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Joan Breton Connelly. Portrait of a Priestess: Women and Ritual in Ancient Greece. (Princeton
University Press, 2007), 108.
11
Ibid.
9

10

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The figure wears a wreath of vines and bunches of grapes over their ears, indicative
of the production and consumption of wine. As one of Dionysus’ predominant
domains, wine would induce his worshippers to experience either a pleasant
alleviation of anxieties or a state of madness through intoxication. The Greeks
credited Dionysus with teaching humans the cultivation of the vine and as such,
grape harvest and winemaking were indicators of culture and civilized behaviour.
Wine was as a substance as multifaceted as the god himself; it was what the Greeks
used to distinguish themselves from the non-wine drinking barbarians and it was
the inciter of the untamed states of ecstasy that are most associated with maenads.
Dionysus was a chthonic deity with a connection to the cyclicity of nature as
observable through the death and rebirth of vegetation that he embodied. As such,
the use of ivy leaves in association with Dionysus were a symbol of the “protection
of the deceased” signifying the assurance of “a happy life after death” from the
god. 12 Other examples of Hellenistic jewellery, such as necklaces and earrings that
use similar imagery of vine wreaths, seem to confirm an artistic popularity of
maenads as a reflection of the widespread fascination with the mystery rites of
Dionysus during this time. 13
A crisis of succession followed the death of Alexander the Great. Conflicts amongst
his generals and relatives, otherwise known as the Wars of the Diadochi, were a
source of political unrest and uncertainty as many fought to gain control of the
empire that Alexander abruptly left behind. These disputes influenced those who
claimed to be a successor of Alexander to connect themselves to him visually as a
way of legitimizing their claims to authority. 14 Examples of this custom survive in
Hellenistic coinage which depict potential successors with the inclusion of features
that imitate the most prominent characteristics of Alexander, such as his easily
recognizable hairstyle. For this reason, Ptolemy I, who had acquired control over
Egypt after Alexander’s death, formed his own connection to Dionysus as a means
of further affirming his association with Alexander, who also promoted himself as
a descendent of Dionysus. 15 The Ptolemies avid propagation of the cult of Dionysus
for political purposes was partially responsible for its growing prominence under
the influence of their dynasty, contributing to a socio-cultural atmosphere in which
such an accessory would be crafted.
Festivals held for Dionysus became exceedingly extravagant with the
encouragement of the Hellenistic monarchs that gave occasion for displaying the

Dorota Gorzelany, “The Symbolism of the Architectural Forms, Painted Decoration and
Furnishings of Tombs in Macedonia.” Oxford: Archaeopres (2019), 146.
13
Hoffman and Davidson, 12.
14
Jordi Pàmias, “Dionysus and Donkeys on the Streets of Alexandria: Eratosthenes' Criticism of
Ptolemaic Ideology.” Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 102 (2004), 2.
15
Ibid.
12

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wealth and prosperity of their kingdom. 16 Rituals for Dionysus retained the preHellenistic era theatrical essence, and the processions dedicated to him were grand
events that included hired musicians as well as actors that would use costumes to
embody figures of significance in connection to Dionysus. 17 Many roles in these
processions were open to women, who could have had a part as a maenad, while
men would impersonate satyrs to formally represent the mythological retinue of
Dionysus. 18 Ritual re-enactments of mythical narratives are thought to have been a
vital aspect of the Mystery cults that would assist in creating a perceived bond
between worshipers and their god.
Mystery cults, such as that of Dionysus, also gained popularity from people of
varying social statuses. Participation in mystery religions required initiation and
additionally, the promise of maintaining the secrecy surrounding their sacred rites,
making reliable information on these practices incredibly scarce. Contrary to statesanctioned religions, involvement in mystery cults was not a mandatory civic duty
but an individual choice. People sought a close spiritual connection with the deities
they worshipped, and gradually became more inclined to favour gods that seemed
more suited to offer fulfilment for their own personal needs. Appeasing the gods
and placating their anger for the sake of the state had previously been of primary
significance within Greek religious structure. 19 Dionysus was uniquely enticing in
this regard because he brought relief from the mundanity of daily life’s tiresome
responsibilities through his festivities. Initiates of his cult were also drawn to
Dionysus’ perceived role as a provider of a better afterlife that countered the eternal
state of dread and despair that would await them in the Underworld otherwise. This
aspect of the cult of Dionysus, and of mystery religions in general, was crucial to
its appeal because the promise of salvation in the afterlife was a concept that was
largely absent from Greek religious belief.
As this hairnet is a clear indicator of wealth and status, it is worth examining the
contexts under which such jewellery might have been worn along with the societal
shifts that would have sanctioned women to present themselves in this manner.
Interestingly, owning such a luxury object of adornment arguably lacks the
idealized Greek conception of female modesty. The increasing demand for
women’s luxury items during the Hellenistic era may be partially attributed to the
diminishment of pre-existing legal restrictions of the Greek world concerning
women’s inability to have access to or sole control over their wealth. 20 Thus, this
development allowed women of the upper-class some liberties that enabled them to
Glenn R. Bugh, The Cambridge Companion to the Hellenistic World. (Cambridge University
Press, 2006), 211.
17
Connelly, 107.
18
Ibid.
19
Bugh, 211.
20
Jane Rowlandson, Editor. Women & Society in Greek & Roman Egypt. (Cambridge University
Press, 1998), 35-36.
16

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spend without the supervision of a husband or male relative. 21 This was especially
the case for the queens and princesses of the Ptolemaic dynasty who followed the
conventions of Macedonian royalty, which permitted women to own and manage
their own property. 22 These social developments created an increase in
opportunities for women to make contributions in their name for the benefit of
religion which could garner them recognition and even acclaim as the
benefactresses of specific cults or sanctuaries. 23
Women had always held vital roles in traditional Greco-Macedonian worship in
which their participation within the religious sphere demonstrated their
contributions to their state and the overall welfare of society, generally through
their association with fertility in conjunction with their reproductive capacities.
However, during the Hellenistic period, the roles of a priestess increasingly became
a means for women to obtain public honour by occupying a position of communal
prestige. 24 Therefore in certain circumstances, women’s involvement in the
religious realm became less anonymous and more worthy of individual praise.
However, the “glory and civic honour” awarded to women who acted as patrons to
their communities “also extended to their entire family line” and as a result,
benefitted their husband and male relatives. 25
Positions of authority within a religious context were still predominantly limited to
women who came from prominent or affluent families. 26 Competition between
noble families for jurisdiction over priesthoods was not unusual, but elite women
with sufficient financial resources at their disposal could independently secure and
manage priesthoods. 27 Other specific requirements often needed to be met by those
seeking to purchase a priesthood, such as being of able-body which was regarded
as a perceivable signifier that an individual had not been “cursed” by the gods. 28
Such requirements are indicated by “inscriptions that advertise the sale of
priesthoods” from the Hellenistic period. 29 It gradually became more commonplace
for women to hold roles of religious influence and by the late Hellenistic period,
men frequently held office in conjunction with their wives. 30

Ibid.
Ibid.
23
Sharon L. James, and Sheila Dillon, A Companion to Women in the Ancient World (Blackwell
Publishing Ltd., 2012), 247.
24
Ibid.
25
Ibid.
26
Connelly, 44.
27
Ibid.
28
Ibid, 45.
29
Ibid.
30
Ibid, 42.
21
22

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The majority of recorded Hellenistic jewellery has been found in tombs dated to the
“late fourth or early third century” BCE, coinciding with the abundant quantities of
gold in Greece at this time. 31 As such, one of the most consistent functions of
jewellery is as an assertion of familial wealth and status made by the surviving
relatives of a deceased individual. The lavishness of grave gifts from burials of
women from across the Hellenized world, that include, amongst other items of
religious significance, jewellery. Such surviving examples of jewellery present
iconography that is connotative of service to a specific god, and have consequently
been speculated by scholars to represent the owner’s former “priestly status” in
life. 32 Deeds of civic benevolence could qualify a woman to be commemorated
after her death in the form of a costly burial, or in some exceptional cases, a public
burial ceremony. 33 Public burial for women in the Greek world was a tremendously
rare event, as it was one of the “greatest civic honours” achievable, even for men
who had more public presence and political influence in every sense. 34 In the
Hellenistic period these mortuary rituals were most commonly held for women who
had been civic office holders, patrons, or priestesses. 35
The gold openwork hairnet at The Metropolitan Museum of Art is a reminder that
Hellenistic jewellery is never purely ornamental, as its uses of religious imagery
and the quality of its workmanship can be placed within the context of historical
developments to interpret the ways in which these drastic changes impacted the
lives of individuals. The gold hairnet provides a glimpse at how adornment was
used to communicate the worth and virtues of women, as well as their religious
piety. The motifs employed by jewellery have intention beyond decoration, which
are often deliberately suggestive of the values of the wearer and of her family, and
could therefore be an indicator of wealth and status for the living as well as the
deceased.

Higgins, 157.
Connelly, 226.
33
Connelly, 224.
34
Ibid.
35
Ibid.
31
32

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
BUGH, GLENN R. The Cambridge Companion to the Hellenistic World. Cambridge
University Press, 2006.
CONNELLY, JOAN BRETON. Portrait of a Priestess: Women and Ritual in Ancient
Greece. Princeton University Press, 2007.
“Gold openwork hairnet with medallion.” The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/255890
GORZELANY, DOROTA. "The Symbolism of the Architectural Forms, Painted
Decoration and Furnishings of Tombs in Macedonia." In Macedonia –
Alexandria: Monumental Funerary Complexes of the Late Classical and
Hellenistic Age, 124-65. Oxford: Archaeopress, 2019.
HIGGINS, R.A. Greek and Roman Jewellery. London: Methuen and Co Ltd, 1961.
HOFFMAN, HERBERT, AND PATRICIA F. DAVIDSON. Greek Gold Jewelry from the
Age of Alexander. Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, 1965.
JAMES, SHARON L., AND SHEILA DILLON. A Companion to Women in the Ancient
World. Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 2012.
PÀMIAS, JORDI. “Dionysus and Donkeys on the Streets of Alexandria: Eratosthenes'
Criticism of Ptolemaic Ideology.” Harvard Studies in Classical
Philology 102 (2004): 191–98.
ROWLANDSON, JANE, Editor. Women & Society In Greek & Roman Egypt.
Cambridge University Press, 1998.

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